Social Constructionism Definition

Social constructionism is the theory that people develop knowledge of the world in a social context, and that much of what we perceive as reality depends on shared assumptions. From a social constructionist perspective, many things we take for granted and believe are objective reality are actually socially constructed, and thus, can change as society changes. Key Takeaways: Social Constructionism The theory of social constructionism states that meaning and knowledge are socially created.Social constructionists believe that things that are generally viewed as natural or normal in society, such as understandings of gender, race, class, and disability, are socially constructed, and consequently aren’t an accurate reflection of reality.Social constructs are often created within specific institutions and cultures and come to prominence in certain historical periods. Social constructs’ dependence of historical, political, and economic conditions can lead them to evolve and change. Origins The theory of social constructionism was introduced in the 1966 book The Social Construction of Reality, by sociologists Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckman. Berger and Luckman’s ideas were inspired by a number of thinkers, including Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and George Herbert Mead. In particular, Meads theory symbolic interactionism, which suggests that social interaction is responsible for the construction of identity, was highly influential. In the late 1960s, three separate intellectual movements came together to form the foundation of social constructionism. The first was an ideological movement that questioned social realities and put a spotlight on the political agenda behind such realities. The second was a literary/rhetorical drive to deconstruct language and the way it impacts our knowledge of reality. And the third was a critique of scientific practice, led by Thomas Kuhn, who argued that scientific findings are influenced by, and thus representative of, the specific communities where theyre produced—rather than objective reality. Social Constructionism Definition The theory of social constructionism asserts that all meaning is socially created. Social constructs might be so ingrained that they feel natural, but they are not. Instead, they are an invention of a given society and thus do not accurately reflect reality. Social constructionists typically agree on three key points: Knowledge Is Socially Constructed Social constructionists believe that knowledge arises out of human relationships. Thus, what we take to be true and objective is the result of social processes that take place in historical and cultural contexts. In the realm of the sciences, this means that although truth can be achieved within the confines of a given discipline, there is no over-arching truth that is more legitimate than any other. Language Is Central to Social Construction Language abides by specific rules, and these rules of language shape how we understand the world. As a result, language isn’t neutral. It emphasizes certain things while ignoring others. Thus, language constrains what we can express as well as our perceptions of what we experience and what we know. Knowledge Construction Is Politically-Driven The knowledge created in a community has social, cultural, and political consequences. People in a community accept and sustain the community’s understanding of particular truths, values, and realities. When new members of a community accept such knowledge, it extends even further. When a community’s accepted knowledge becomes policy, ideas about power and privilege in the community become codified. These socially constructed ideas then create social reality, and—if they aren’t examined—begin to seem fixed and unchangeable. This can lead to antagonistic relationships between communities that don’t share the same understanding of social reality. Social Constructionism vs. Other Theories Social constructionism is often placed in contrast with biological determinism. Biological determinism suggests that an individuals traits and behavior are determined exclusively by biological factors. Social constructionism, on the other hand, emphasizes the influence of environmental factors on human behavior and suggests that relationships among people create reality. In addition, social constructionism should not be confused with constructivism. Social constructivism is the idea that an individuals interactions with her environment create the cognitive structures that enable her to understand the world. This idea is often traced back to developmental psychologist Jean Piaget. While the two terms spring from different scholarly traditions, they are increasingly used interchangeably. Critiques Some scholars believe that, by asserting that knowledge is socially constructed and not the result of observations of reality, social constructionism is anti-realist. Social constructionism is also criticized on grounds of relativism. By arguing that no objective truth exists and that all social constructions of the same phenomena are equally legitimate, no construct can be more legitimate than another. This is especially problematic in the context of scientific research. If an unscientific account about a phenomenon is considered as legitimate as empirical research about that phenomenon, there is no clear path forward for research to make a meaningful impact on society. Sources Andrews, Tom. â€Å"What is Social Constructionism?† Grounded Theory Review: An International Journal, vol. 11, no. 1, 2012. http://groundedtheoryreview.com/2012/06/01/what-is-social-constructionism/Berger, Peter L. and Thomas Luckman. The Social Construction of Reality. Doubleday/Anchor, 1966.Chu, Hyejin Iris. â€Å"Social Constructionism.† International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Encyclopedia.com. 2008. https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences-and-law/sociology-and-social-reform/sociology-general-terms-and-concepts/social-constructionismGalbin, Alexandra. â€Å"An Introduction to Social Constructionism.† Social Research Reports, vol. 26, 2014, pp. 82-92. https://www.researchreports.ro/an-introduction-to-social-constructionismGergen, Kenneth J. â€Å"The Self as Social Construction.† Psychological Studies, vol. 56, no. 1, 2011, pp. 108-116. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12646-011-0066-1Hare, Rachel T. and Jeanne Marecek. â€Å"Abnormal and Cli nical Psychology: The Politics of Madness.† Critical Psychology: An Introduction, edited by Dennis Fox and Isaac Prilleltensky, Sage Publications, 1999, pp. 104-120.Kang, Miliann, Donovan Lessard, Laura Heston, and Sonny Nordmarken. Introduction to Women, Gender, and Sexuality Studies. University of Massachusetts Amherst Libraries, 2017. https://press.rebus.community/introwgss/front-matter/287-2/ 401 401â€Å"Social Constructionism.† Oxford Reference. http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100515181

Hobbes And Rousseau On The Social Contract Theory

Hobbes and Rousseau on the Social Contract Theory The social contract theory focuses on the origin of states and laws, and the impact of regulated communities or states on individuals. All conceptions of the social contract theory can be harmonized to the individual desire for safety or security and the demand for fulfillment through a collective agreement which transforms the human dimension into an organized society from the primordial state. Rousseau was the first philosopher to coin the social contract terminology despite it being recognized in some Greek philosophers’ works. Thomas Hobbes, however, is widely acknowledged as the founder of the social contract theory within western philosophy (Baird, 2011). As a result, the theories of Rousseau and Locke can be regarded, to some extent, to be based on the disquisitions of Hobbes. Conversely, Locke and Rousseau have transformed the concept of Hobbes to align with their perspectives on society and human nature. Hobbes and Rousseau have significant similarities and difference s in their similarities conceptions regarding the social contract theory. Hobbes argues that man naturally desires security and order. It is the quest for security and preservation, as well as the need to avoid pain and misery that made man to get into a contract. Self-preservation and protection are widespread in the nature of man and in an attempt to achieve it, man voluntarily surrendered all his rights and freedoms to the authority through theShow MoreRelatedThe Social Contract : Hobbes Vs. Rousseau1457 Words   |  6 PagesThe Social Contract: Hobbes vs. Rousseau Since the beginning of the modern age, governments and states have existed in order to maintain moral law. Essentially these institutions are for the greater good of humanity. However, little thought is ever given to how humans lived without governments. Each and every person in the modern age is born into a state, and becomes a part of that state regardless of their will. The concept that humans are born into a state is derived from the social contract. TheRead MoreHuman Nature Is Good, And Being A Beast1165 Words   |  5 Pages Thomas Hobbes was an English philosopher, and the author of Leviathan. Hobbes declared that human life was â€Å"solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short†(Hobbes, 107). Hobbes felt that the natural state of man was beast-like, and savage. Thus, he felt that it is civilization that influences and challenges humanity from our fundamental wickedness. Within his view, human nature is dangerous; which can only be rescued through culture and community. According to Hobbes, being â€Å"civilized† is good, and beingRead MoreThe Social Contract Theory Essay1249 Words   |  5 Pages1a. The Social Contract Theory According to the Social Contract Theory, it suggests that all individuals must depend on an agreement/ or contract among each person to form a society, in which they live in. The concept emphasizes authority over individuals, in other words, the social contract favors authority (e.g. the Sovereign) over the individuals, because men have to forfeit their personal right and freedom to the government, in exchange for protection and security, which I will further elaborateRead MoreSimilarities And Differences Between Hobbes And Rousseau965 Words   |  4 PagesThis assessment is drawn from the works of Hobbes and Rousseau, whom despite addressing many of the same issues differed greatly on issues such as the state, human nature, and inequality, posing difficulty in telling who among the two represented a better view of those issues. A breakdown of the various works of both Hobbes and Rousseau will assist in examining the similarities and differences in their views on the three issues . To start with, Rousseau is of the view that human beings are not naturallyRead MoreHobbes And Rousseau s View Of State Of Nature1486 Words   |  6 Pagesstarting point of their theories about society, chief among them Hobbes and Rousseau. Even though both philosophers saw state of nature as the phase prior to formation of societies, Hobbes saw the state of nature as a step to the better phase (a political society ruled by sovereign), while Rousseau saw it as a step to man’s misery. For Hobbes, man’s natural state is fearful and chaotic phase which create the need for an institution that provides self-protection. Rousseau opposed Hobbes’s view ofRead MoreIs Outsourcing A Refugee Crisis?1544 Words   |  7 PagesThe authors I chose to focus on are Thomas Hobbes and Jean Jacques Rousseau. From the readings â€Å"Leviathan† by Thomas Hobbes (CITE) and â€Å"Discourse on the Origin of Inequality† by Jean Jacques Rousseau (CITE), both authors have simi lar but yet very different viewpoints on ideas they have made. The ideas I will be comparing and contrasting between these two philosophers are their different beliefs and understandings on the state of nature and the social contract. The media objective I have chosen to focusRead MoreEvolution and the Modern Social Contract Theory : Essay Outline1050 Words   |  5 PagesThe Emergence of the Modern Social Contract Theory Essay Outline POLS 14033 – Political Ideas and Ideologies The Emergence of the Modern Social Contract Theory Essay Question: Firstly, in this essay, we will describe and analyze the various concepts of the evolution and emergence of the modern social contract theory thru the analysis of several of its key political thinkers. We will provide a detailed review of the concepts that have developed and that were crucial for theRead MoreThe Social Contract Theory Since The United States1449 Words   |  6 PagesFor this discussion, I am keen to discuss the Social Contract theory since I see this fundamental theory still directly affects today s politics in the United States as well as around the world. Contemporary study of neoliberalism and neo-conservatism as in the analysis of Wendy Brown (2006) or of political deliberation and deliberative democracy in the writing of Simone Chambers (2009) is a dynamic consequences of that basic concepts of democracy from the past. During its development, democracyRead MoreSocial And Political Order : Seat Belt Laws1102 Words   |  5 PagesSocial and Political Order: Seat Belt Laws Social and Political theories aim to define the relationships between government and citizen, and concerns the organization and basis of government. (Merriam-Webster, n.d). In application, the necessity to find a balance between two primary theories becomes apparent. Modern day social and political theories can largely be attributed to ideas of two individuals, Thomas Hobbes and Jean Jacques Rousseau. Hobbes believed major government influence was a necessityRead MoreEssay on What is the Function of a Social Contract?1637 Words   |  7 PagesFunction of a Social Contract? Philosophers have been concerned with the theories of a social contract for thousands of years. Plato mentions the concept in Crito and in Republic. These theories have stemmed from the concept of justice and for our society to be just. I will look at the works of Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau and finally with John Rawls after which a overall view into the function of a social contract can be derived as well as any problems with the theory(s). The

Bipolar Disorder And Other Mental Illnesses Essay

Having Bipolar Disorder means waking up not knowing whether Tigger or Eeyore will be making your decisions for you(healthyplace.com). I became interested in bipolar disorder and other mental illnesses because my older cousin suffers from bipolar disorder and dissociative identity disorder. After he was diagnosed I wanted to learn more about it, to better understand how he felt living with these disorders. He wasn t able to come over because my parents were afraid he would do something to harm us, especially since he had set my cousins back porch on fire trying to kill his sisters. Bipolar disorder affects 5.7 million of adult Americans, 2.6 percent being over the age of 18. Throughout this paper, you will hear about what bipolar disorder is and the different categories of bipolar disorder, the symptoms, and the medicines used to treat them. Bipolar disorder was first noticed in the second century, during this time people who had symptoms of a mental illness were executed because the church believed these people were possessed by demons. As the years went by slowly people started to understand, as a physician and philosopher named Aretaeus of Cappadocia who had recognized the symptoms of depression and mania ad linked them together. His findings didn’t become known until 1650 because of a scientist named Rob Burton wrote a book about clinical depression, called The Anatomy of Melancholia. Later in 1854 bipolar disorder was seen in a whole new light after Jean-PierreShow MoreRelatedThe Effects Of Bipolar Disorder On Individuals, Families And Society1109 Words   |  5 PagesMental illness is a leading cause of disability in Canada. All Canadians are likely to be indirectly affected through a mental illness in a family, friend or colleague. Statistics showed that 1 in 5 Canadians experiences a mental health or add iction problem. (Mental Illness and Addictions: Facts and Statistics, n.d.). This report will be focusing on one of the more common mental illness — bipolar disorder. Bipolar disorder, also known as manic-depressive illness, is a serious medical condition thatRead MoreThe Stigma Associated With Bipolar Disorder1448 Words   |  6 PagesLiving with Bipolar Disorder The stigma associated with bipolar disorder is unacceptable. The purpose of this paper is to improve the readers ability to understand what bipolar disorder is and how being diagnosed with this disorder affects all facets of daily living. Family, friends and associates of individuals with bipolar disorder are often affected as well. As a result of the stigma associated with the disorder, the effects remain: often multiplied by individuals that have a limited understandingRead MoreSchizophrenia Vs. Bipolar Disorder972 Words   |  4 PagesSchizophrenia vs. Bipolar Disorder By Jenita Johnson October 29, 2015 Schizophrenia vs. Bipolar Disorder There are many mental illnesses that are diagnosed and common amongst adults and children today. The two most common mental illnesses are schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. These illnesses are considered the two most functional psychotic disorders. Schizophrenia is a chronic condition with an increase in severity of its symptoms but always has some background to its symptoms. Bipolar disorder is generallyRead MoreBipolar : A Mental Illness1692 Words   |  7 Pagesduring my undergraduate career has a mental illness called bipolar. According to the National Institute of Mental Health, bipolar is defined as a chronic mental illness that causes a range of different shifts in mood, energy, activity occurrence, and the ability to function and carry out the day to day tasks (National Institute of Mental Health, 2016). Bipolar disorder is also known as a manic depressive illness due to the shifts in mood. People with bipolar often experience lows and highs. ResearchRead MoreBipolar Disord er : Symptoms And Treatment917 Words   |  4 PagesAndrea Nasev Freeman-3 Health 26 October 2014 Bipolar Disorder According to the National Health Institute of Mental Health about 2.6% of the adults in the United States are affected by bipolar disorder every year. People who have bipolar disorder experience alternating periods of mania (overly happy) and very deep depression. Untreated bipolar disorder can cause other mental disorders and some physical illnesses too. Although bipolar is a lifelong genetic condition, there are ways to relieve theRead MoreThe Correlation between Creativity and Madness1594 Words   |  7 Pagesboth creative individuals, and mentally ill patients. Could it be Madness? A correlation between a more creative individual and a mentally ill patient exists, and it is highly likeable that the former could be the latter. The issue of whether great mental abilities, whether it’s creativity in crafts such as arts or literature, or high intellectual skills in engineering or sciences, is linked to madness and melancholy has always been a controversy; a cultural notion that has been persistently debatedRead MorePsychiatric Concept Of Bipolar Disorder1312 Words   |  6 PagesBipolar Disorder (Neel Burton M.D. 2012) suggests the modern psychiatric concept of bipolar disorder originated during the nineteenth century. However, in his excerpt â€Å"A Short History of Bipolar Disorder†, (Neel Burton M.D. 2012) writes that the relationship between melancholy and mania dates back to the Ancient Greeks. According to the excerpt Jules Baillarger and Jean-Pierre Falret presented their descriptions to the Academie de Medicine, both of which used the term insanity in their descriptionsRead MoreMental Health Illnesses Have A Genetic Contribution1534 Words   |  7 Pagesshow that mental health illnesses have a genetic contribution. Mental health professionals have long known that certain mental illnesses can run in families, due to the fact that most, the chance of obtaining schizophrenia or bipolar disorder with no genetic factor is around one perfect, as to where if someone has a close relative with a certain disorder, such as a parent or sibling, the risk factor jumps to a round ten percent. The genetic force behind the abundance of mental illnesses is especiallyRead MoreThe Inclusion Of Education On Mental Illness1461 Words   |  6 PagesArguing For the Inclusion of Education on Mental Illness Mental illness affects millions of people around the world. What is surprising, however, is the lack of public information and education about mental illness. With the amount of undiagnosed mental illnesses and disorders as well as the number of suicide attempts that occur daily, it should become a priority for the education system to introduce public classes on mental illness for not just adults or teens but for younger children as well. EducatingRead MoreBipolar Disorder And Its Effects On Society1416 Words   |  6 PagesBipolar disorder is often misunderstood. There is very little research on all mental illnesses but, specifically bipolar disorder because humans have not come out with the technology to fully study the brain. This is why people often judge people with mental illnesses and place a certain stigma on them, people just do not know what to think. For our group project, my group wanted to learn more about why mental illnesses are so misrepresented within our culture. Bipolar disorder, formerly known as

Who Is The Best People I Know - 1365 Words

Helping Hand Have you ever wondered how much of an impact you could have on someone else’s life just by doing something small for them? As you start to grow up you make sense of helping each other out with the little things in life. Some people don’t even realize they do it every day, opening the door for someone, showing someone directions, or even just waving at them. Each day you are doing good for others by not realizing it, and that is just what Brittany Ross continues to do. Brittany grew up in Peoria Illinois, and her family was known for the people that helped the community. From what she can remember her family would always have volunteering come first and always would help others out. She says â€Å"They are the best people I know† (Ross). As a child she noticed that her dad was the one to inspire her to volunteer and taught her â€Å"everything is a blessing and to use my good to help others† (Ross). Her family was known in the community by alw ays giving time to help everyone with whatever they needed. They helped people who were in need of things around the house and even places that needed donations to keep in business. As of right now she says she will come back home during breaks to help out around the community and to try to be involved. She took on a new step in life by applying to the University of Iowa, she knew she wanted to volunteer whenever she could by joining organization’s here on campus, and she became a resident assistant. Not only did she want toShow MoreRelatedOur Beliefs and Standards are Our Morals860 Words   |  3 PagesAt times, our morals can get the best of us and we get confused in what we do. Our decisions are reflections on our actions mad our actions can show who we really are to people. Morals are a part of who we are as people, but there are times our morals will get the best of us. The decisions that we make affects us personally but others as well. Our morals can be a hindrance on our own personal decisions. If we rationalize our ideas then maybe we can find the best answers that fit us as well as othersRead MoreMy Mother : My Best Friend720 Words   |  3 Pageslife it tends to, you want someone who is not going to judge you. Someone who’s looking out for your best interest, supports your right decisions and try to talk you out of you worst ones. We all need someone that we just give in to. To me, the type relationship you have with such a person is called a friendship. With the true definition of friendship, someone I believe personifies those description the best in my life is my mother. Of all the people in my life I consider to be my ride or die, myRead MoreThree People Who Have Influenced Me the Most in Life716 Words   |  3 PagesThree People Who Have Influenced Me the Most In Life Do you have anyone you cherish and love? Can you think of someone who you could not live without? Have you stopped and thought about who inspires you? Do you know someone who has influenced you? For me, there have been three influential people in my life who I love and cherish. I know I could not live without them because they inspire me so much. Those people are my mom, papa, and my best friend Jessie. They have all influenced me in many waysRead MoreControlling Chat For A Staff1204 Words   |  5 Pagesme is very importan.If i were to be given staff i would make sure chat is clean and that there is no toxicty.I will do everything i can to keep spamming the lowest i can.If there is argueing in chat i will try to end it by calming both people down.I will make sure everybody is having fun chating each other and playing together.I am very good at chat-modding from previous experience and i can act fast to people who advertise and more.I feel like i will be a very good staff if i get t he opportunity toRead MoreLiving On This Planet : How It Is The Best?1208 Words   |  5 Pagesdifficult people. Humans will disagree, argue, and think their ways are the best. These people are friends, teachers, parents, and co-workers. Yes, people think differently and have their own ideas, so naturally they want everything to go as they think best. As hard as it is to see, they might not in fact have the best idea. When learning to deal with difficult people it can be complicated. In this world there are many types of difficult people: people who complain about anything, who often closeRead MoreAdvertising: Agency Client Relationships1326 Words   |  6 PagesHow to get the best advertising from your agency by Nancy Salz. Agency Client Commitments A personal contract for collaborators The six agency commitments: What you should expect from your agency. 1. Commitment to the success of your business. The best agency people are 100 percent committed to the same goal you are: success in the marketplace. Their commitment is evidenced by their time, enthusiasm, work, and knowledge that if you succeed, they succeed. [The best agency accountRead MoreCommunication Is The Best Key For Solving A Interpersonal Relation873 Words   |  4 Pagessharing thought and expression between people to ensure and understand each other. The benefits of communication provides a people to get a several advantage. One of the benefit of communication could be share a sincere feeling by communication to become truly close by together. Also by communication, people whom are in the team, they can coperated to develop teamwork. Another reason communication is imporant is because it can prevent a misunderstanding between people to keep relationship on good . TheRead MoreOther People Do Not Have Minds1643 Words   |  7 PagesOther people do not have minds. At least, I cannot know for sure that they do, and will argue for this case in this essay. The problem of other minds (that is, can we know that other people have minds) is a problem that (like all classic philosophical problems) seemingly has no provable answer. The problem is such; I do not know for sure that other people actually have minds; I only know what my own experiences are like through direct experience (i.e. I know my experiences because I experience them)Read MoreIt Has Been Said That First Impressions Are Almost Impossible to Change. Based on Your Experiences, Do You Agree or Disagree with This Statement?627 Words   |  3 PagesSome people said that first impressions are almost impossible to change. while others said first impression are able to change when we get through it. In this time it hard to judge people by just looking. we can’t tell people whether they are good or bad by their physical appearance, or we can’t tell about their personality by their first impression. This the time people don’t trust each other and love each other. In my position i completely disagree by the ideal thinking of that first impressionsRead MoreMy Ideal Future1484 Words   |  6 Pages1. How would you describe your ideal f uture? Think of this as the best possible life that you can achieve through hard work and perseverance. What will it look like? I would describe my ideal future by having the career that I want to have. I want to be a Doctor of Physical Therapy who is working with famous athletes or with NBA players. I want to have a husband who is a god fearing person, who respects me and loves me so much with a good career too. And we will have kids, as much as we can afford

The Importance of Psychology Free Essays

Psychology is involved in almost every job field in the modern era. Marketers use psychology to figure out how to convey their product to consumers. Car designers use psychology to give their cars features that would persuade potential buyers to choose their car. We will write a custom essay sample on The Importance of Psychology or any similar topic only for you Order Now Doctors use psychology to understand their patients better. My chosen profession is education, and there are an unlimited number of applications for psychology. In teaching, psychology is the basis in which teachers understand their students. The specific area that would be most pertinent to teaching would probably be social psychology. College students basically take the same courses over their 4-year tenure in the university. But only certain students want to regurgitate the knowledge that they have acquired over the years. These are the students that have chosen teaching as their profession. The ones that want to pass on what they have learned to students need to not only be knowledgeable in their subjects, but need to know how to understand the students. If a teacher can not understand their students, then there is very little hope for the professor teaching the student anything. Understanding a student is a complex process that takes a lot of training. A teacher needs to know what the child is thinking in order to fully understand them. Teachers need to be able to communicate with the students so the student can tell the teacher what he is thinking. Another way to understand a student is to study social psychology. Social psychology is the study of the effects of people on people. More specifically, social psych observes how interactions between people affect an individual. Social psychologists study how people react in groups, emotional behavior, and attitudes and opinions of people. Since there is never a time in school when a child is alone, it is imperative that a teacher understands how children act and react when they are placed in a group or classroom. A teacher needs to understand why some kids are more outgoing, while others seem to fade away in classes. It is the teacher†s job to know the reason a child is not learning to the best of his capabilities. Social psychology looks at these problems and researches solutions that will remedy a child†s abnormal behavior in the classroom. A teacher that is fluent in social psychology and understands the way a child thinks is much more equipped to take on the everyday problems of teaching. Even though a teacher is more apt to benefit through social psychology, School Psychologists specialize in clinical psychology. While a teacher may deal with problems that a child has interacting with others, a school psychologist deals with behavior problems that do not necessarily have to do with the class. School psychologists study the individual instead. They deal with all aspects of school, not just teaching. They monitor not only learning and social relation, but testing, substance abuse, neglect of the child, and violence. But in the end teachers and school psychologists have the same goal in mind, which is creating the best learning environment for all students. Teachers have a great responsibility on their hands. They are accountable for what a child does in his school career. A teacher needs to know the best way to help a child learn. Psychology is a great help to let a teacher know what is going on in the mind of his student. Psychology is the key to a teacher understanding his students. The better a teacher can understand his students, the more the student can learn. If a student can learn, then that teacher is the most successful educator in the world. How to cite The Importance of Psychology, Papers

World War 1 Causes and Consequences free essay sample

Europe avoided major wars in the 100 years before World War 1 began. In the 1800s, an idea swept across the continent that helped bring about the Great War. Many historians argue that there are many causes of the first World War some of which are not disclosed to the wider population. However, the main causes of World War I, which began in central Europe in late July 1914, included many factors, such as the conflicts and hostility between the great European powers of the four decades leading up to the war. Militarism, alliances, imperialism, and nationalism played major roles in the conflict as well. The immediate origins of the war, however, lay in the decisions taken by statesmen and generals during the July Crisis of 1914 caused by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie by Gavrilo Princip, anirredentist Serb and member of the Serbian nationalist organization, the Black Hand. The crisis came after a long and difficult series of diplomatic clashes between the Great Powers (Italy, France, Germany, Britain, Austria-Hungary and Russia) over European and colonial issues in the decade before 1914 that had left tensions high. In turn these diplomatic clashes can be traced to changes in the balance of power in Europe since 1867. The more immediate cause for the war was tensions over territory in the Balkans. Austria-Hungary competed with Serbia and Russia for territory and influence in the region and they pulled the rest of the Great Powers into the conflict through their various alliances and treaties. According to Henig (2002), another cause of the first World War was the Franco-Prussian War. The war between France and Prussia (the future German Empire) that lasted from 1870 to 1871 ended with a humiliating defeat for France. It lost the regions of Alsace and Lorraine, and was forced to pay a huge indemnity to Prussia. The Franco-Prussian War led to creation of a powerful German Empire with a military and industrial potential to further disrupt the European balance of power on the one hand and widespread resentment and desire for revenge among the French (revanchism) on the other. Cohen (1967) asserted that some other factors that led to the first World War were the domestic political factors. Left-wing parties, especially the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) made large gains in the 1912 German election. German government at the time was still dominated by the Prussian Junkers who feared the rise of these left-wing parties. Fritz Fischer famously argued that they deliberately sought an external war to distract the population and whip up patriotic support for the government. Russia was in the midst of a large-scale military build-up and reform that they intended to complete in 1916–1917. Other authors argue that German conservatives were ambivalent about a war, worrying that losing a war would have disastrous consequences, and even a successful war might alienate the population if it were lengthy or difficult. The situation in France was quite different from that in Germany as going to war appeared to the majority of political and military leaders to be a potentially costly gamble. It is undeniable that forty years after the loss of Alsace-Lorraine a vast number of French were still angered by the territorial loss, as well as by the humiliation of being compelled to pay a large reparation to Germany in 1871. The diplomatic alienation of France orchestrated by Germany prior to World War I caused further resentment in France. Nevertheless, the leaders of France recognized Germanys strong military advantage against them, as Germany had nearly twice as much population and a better equipped army. At the same time, the episodes of the Tangier Crisis in 1905 and the Agadir Crisis in 1911 had given France a strong indication that war with Germany could be inevitable if Germany continued to oppose French colonial expansionism. Lieven (1983) stated that France was politically polarized; the left-wing socialists led by Jean Jaures pushed for peace against nationalists on the right like Paul Deroulede who called for revenge against Germany. France in 1914 had never been so prosperous and influential in Europe since 1870, nor its military so strong and confident in its leaders, emboldened by its success in North Africa and the overall pacification of its vast colonial empire. The Entente Cordiale of 1904 with Britain held firm, and was supported by mutual interests abroad and strong economic ties. Russia had fled the triple crown alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary because of disagreements with Austria-Hungary over policy in the Balkans. Russia also hoped that large French investments in its industry and infrastructures coupled with an important military partnership would prove themselves profitable and durable. According to Strachan (2004), historians believe that one of the major reasons for World War One was Imperialism. Countries such as the United Kingdom and France accumulated great wealth in the late 19th century through their control of trade in foreign resources, markets, territories, and people. Other empires, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy, and Russia all hoped to do so as well in economic advantage. Their frustrated ambitions and British policies of strategic exclusion created tensions. In addition, the limits of natural resources in many European nations began to slowly alter trade balance, and make national industries seek new territories rich in natural resources. Commercial interests contributed substantially to Anglo-German rivalry during the scramble for tropical Africa. This was the scene of sharpest conflict between certain German and British commercial interests. There have been two partitions of Africa. One involved the actual imposition of political boundaries across the continent during the last quarter of the 19th century; the other, which actually commenced in the mid-19th century, consisted of the so-called business partition. In southern Africa the latter partition followed rapidly upon the discoveries of diamonds and gold in 1867 and 1886 respectively. An integral part of this second partition was the expansion in the interior of British capital interests, primarily the British South Africa Company and mining companies such as De Beers. After 1886 the Witwatersrand goldfields prompted feverish activity among European as well as British capitalists. It was soon felt that Whitehall that German commercial penetration in particular constituted a direct threat to Britains continued economic and political hegemony south of the Limpopo. Amid the expanding web of German business on the Rand, the most contentious operations were those of the German-financed N. Z. A. S. M. or Netherlands South African Railway Company, which possessed a railway monopoly in the Transvaal. Nugent (2008) stated that rivalries for not just colonies, but colonial trade and trade routes developed between the emerging economic powers and the incumbent great powers. Although still argued differently according to historical perspectives on the path to war, this rivalry was illustrated in the Berlin-Baghdad Railway, which would have given German industry access to Iraqi oil, and German trade a southern port in the Persian Gulf. A history of this railroad in the context of World War I has arrived to describe the German interests in countering the British Empire at a global level, and Turkeys interest in countering their Russian rivals at a regional level. As stated by a contemporary man on the ground at the time, Jastrow wrote, It was felt in England that if, as Napoleon is said to have remarked, Antwerp in the hands of a great continental power was a pistol leveled at the English coast, Bagdad and the Persian Gulf in the hands of Germany (or any other strong power) would be a 42-centimetre gun pointed at India. On the other side, Public opinion in Germany was feasting on visions of Cairo, Baghdad, and Tehran, and the possibility of evading the British blockade through outlets to the Indian Ocean. Britains initial strategic exclusion of others from northern access to a Persian Gulf port in the creation of Kuwait by treaty as a protected, subsidized client state showed political recognition of the importance of the issue. If outcome is revealing, by the close of the war this political recognition was re-emphasized in the military effort to capture the railway itself, recounted with perspective in a contemporary history: On the 26th Aleppo fell, and on the 28th we reached Muslimieh, that junction on the Baghdad railway on which longing eyes had been cast as the nodal point in the conflict of German and other ambitions in the East. The Treaty of Versailles explicitly removed all German ownership thereafter, which without Ottoman rule left access to Mesopotamian and Persian oil, and northern access to a southern port in British hands alone. As asserted by Smith (2007), there are also some technical and military factors that are said to have led to the First World War. Both sides believed, and publicly stated, that the war would end soon. The Kaiser told his troops that they would be home before the leaves have fallen from the trees, and one German officer said he expected to be in Paris by Sedantag, about six weeks away. Germany only stockpiled enough potassium nitrate for gunpowder for six months; without the just-developed Haber-Bosch process, Germany might have collapsed by 1916. Russian officers similarly expected to be in Berlin in six weeks, and those who suggested that the war would last for six months were considered pessimists. Von Moltke and his French counterpart Joseph Joffre were among the few who expected a long war, but neither adjusted his nations military plans accordingly. The new British Secretary of State for War Lord Kitchener was the only leading official on either side to both expect a long war (three years or longer, he told an amazed colleague) and act accordingly, immediately building an army of millions of soldiers who would fight for years. Some authors such as Niall Ferguson argue that the belief in a swift war has been greatly exaggerated since the war. He argues that the military planners, especially in Germany, were aware of the potential for a long war, as shown by the Willy-Nicky telegraphic correspondence between the emperors of Russia and Germany. He also argues that most informed people considered a swift war unlikely. However, it was in the belligerent governments interests to convince their populaces, through skillful propaganda, that the war would be brief. Such a message encouraged men to join the offensive, made the war seem less serious, and promoted general high spirits. As stated by Gillette (2006), British security issues is another military factor that might have lead to World War 1. In explaining why neutral Britain went to war with Germany, Paul Kennedy, in The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism, 1860–1914, claimed that it was critical for war that Germany become economically more powerful than Britain, but he downplayed the disputes over economic trade imperialism, the Baghdad Railway, confrontations in Eastern Europe, high-charged political rhetoric and domestic pressure-groups. Germanys reliance time and again on sheer power, while Britain increasingly appealed to moral sensibilities, played a role, especially in seeing the invasion of Belgium as a necessary military tactic or a profound moral crime. The German invasion of Belgium was not important because the British decision had already been made and the British were more concerned with the fate of France. Kennedy argues that by far the main reason was Londons fear that a repeat of 1870—when Prussia and the German states smashed France would mean Germany, with a powerful army and navy, would control the English Channel, and northwest France. British policy makers insisted that would be a catastrophe for British security. With all the happenings of the First World War, there were both devastating and positive consequences. The aftermath of World War I saw drastic political, cultural, and social change across Europe, Asia, Africa, and even in areas outside those that were directly involved. Four empires collapsed due to the war, old countries were abolished, new ones were formed, boundaries were redrawn, international organizations were established, and many new and old ideologies took a firm hold in peoples minds. World War One left many families in hurt and turmoil due to the loss of their family members. Women and children were left to fend solely for themselves. The death toll for the armed forces in World War I was appalling. Around nine million soldiers were killed, which was about 15 per cent of all combatants. In addition, millions more were permanently disabled by the war; of British war veterans, for example, 41,000 lost a limb in the fighting. In Britain, it became common to talk of a lost generation. Such was a particularly appropriate phrase for the situation in France, where 20 per cent of those between the ages of 20 and 40 in 1914 were killed. Although civilians were not killed on the scale that they would be in World War II, populations had nevertheless become targets of war. In addition to the civilians killed directly in the war, millions more died from famine and disease at the end of the war and at least a further 20 million died worldwide in the Spanish flu epidemic in the winter of 1918–19. There were also economic consequences of World War 1. The economic impact of war on Europe was devastating. The war cost Britain alone more than ? 34 billion. All powers had financed the war by borrowing money. By 1918, the USA had lent $2,000 million to Britain and France; U-boats had also sunk 40 per cent of British merchant shipping. Throughout the 1920s, Britain and France spent between one-third and one-half of their total public expenditure on debt charges and repayments. Britain never regained its pre-war international financial predominance, and lost several overseas markets. The physical effects of the war also had an impact on the economic situation of Europe. Wherever fighting had taken place, land, and industry had been destroyed. France suffered particularly badly, with farm land (2 million hectares), factories and railway lines along the Western Front totally ruined. Belgium, Poland, Italy, and Serbia were also badly affected. Roads and railway lines needed to be reconstructed, hospitals and houses had to be rebuilt and arable land made productive again by the removal of unexploded shells. Consequently, there was a dramatic decline in manufacturing output. Combined with the loss of trade and foreign investments, it is clear that Europe faced an acute economic crisis in 1919. According to Glaser (1998), another consequence of the First World War was treaty of Versailles. After the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the signing of the Treaty of Versailles on 28 June 1919, between Germany on the one side and France, Italy, Britain and other minor allied powers on the other, officially ended war between those countries. Other treaties ended the belligerent relationships of the United States and the other Central Powers. Included in the 440 articles of the Treaty of Versailles were the demands that Germany officially accept responsibility for starting the war and pay economic reparations. This treaty drastically limited the German military machine: German troops were reduced to 100,000 and the country was prevented from possessing major military armaments such as tanks, warships and submarines. Conner (2009) stated that World War One also had a medical consequence which was a huge breakout in Influenza. Historians continue to argue about the impact the 1918 flu pandemic had on the outcome of the war. It has been posited that the Central Powers may have been exposed to the viral wave before the Allies. The resulting casualties having greater effect, having been incurred during the war, as opposed to the allies who suffered the brunt of the pandemic after the Armistice. When the extent of the epidemic was realized, the respective censorship programs of the Allies and Central Powers limited the publics knowledge regarding the true extent of the disease. Because Spain was neutral, their media was free to report on the Flu, giving the impression that it began there. This misunderstanding led to contemporary reports naming it the Spanish flu. Investigative work by a British team led by virologist John Oxford of St Bartholomews Hospital and the Royal London Hospital, identified a major troop staging and hospital camp in Etaples, France as almost certainly being the center of the 1918 flu pandemic. A significant precursor virus was harbored in birds, and mutated to pigs that were kept near the front. The exact number of deaths is unknown but about 50 million people are estimated to have died from the influenza outbreak worldwide. In 2005, a study found that, The 1918 virus strain developed in birds and was similar to the bird flu that today has spurred fears of another worldwide pandemic, yet proved to be a normal treatable virus that did not produce a heavy impact on the worlds health. † Fromkin (1989) said that an economic and geopolitical consequence of the first World War was the dissolution of the German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian and (a little earlier) Ottoman empires created a large number of new small states in eastern Europe. Internally these new states tended to have substantial ethnic minorities, which wished to unite with neighbouring states where their ethnicity dominated. For example Czechoslovakia had Germans, Poles, Ruthenians and Ukrainians,Slovaks and Hungarians. The League of Nations sponsored various Minority Treaties in an attempt to deal with the problem, but with the decline of the League in the 1930s, these treaties became increasingly unenforceable. One consequence of the massive redrawing of borders and the political changes in the aftermath of World War I was the large number of European refugees. These and the refugees of the Russian Civil War led to the creation of the Nansen passport. Ethnic minorities made the location of the frontiers generally unstable. Where the frontiers have remained unchanged, since 1918, there has often been the expulsion of an ethnic group, such as the Sudeten Germans. Economic and military cooperation amongst these small states was minimal, ensuring that the defeated powers of Germany and the Soviet Union retained a latent capacity to dominate the region. In the immediate aftermath of the war, defeat drove cooperation between Germany and the Soviet Union but ultimately these two powers would compete to dominate eastern Europe. Perhaps the single most important event precipitated by the privations of World War I was the Russian Revolution of 1917. A socialist and often explicitly Communist revolutionary waveoccurred in many other European countries from 1917 onwards, notably in Germany and Hungary. Due to the Russian Provisional Governments failure to cede territory, German and Austrian forces defeated the Russian armies; the new communist government signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918. In that treaty, Russia renounced all claims to Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Ukraine, and the territory of Congress Poland and it was left to Germany and Austria-Hungary to determine the future status of these territories in agreement with their population. Later on, Vladimir Lenins government also renounced the Partition of Poland treaty, making it possible for Poland to claim its 1772 borders. However, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was rendered obsolete when Germany was defeated later in 1918, leaving the status of much of Eastern Europe in an uncertain position.

Social Media Research Centre Website Development Free-Samples

Question: Prepare a Project Charter and Communcation Plan. Answer: Project Title Developing a website for Social Media Research Centre Project Start Date 1st April 2017 Project End Date 1st November 2017 Name and Email of the Project Manager Name of the Project Manager: Email: Project Budget Activities Expenses Consulting fees $4000 Content Management System $5000 Web design $5000 Graphic design $3500 HTML skimming $2000 Database management $3000 Coding $10000 Domain name purchase $100 Project Manager $10000 Prgramming $600 Copywriter $300 Usability testing $2000 Site architecture $2000 Miscellaneous expenses $2000 Total $49500 Project Objectives To develop a website for the Social Media Research Centre. To facilitate the Master and Doctoral students with relevant information in context to their major research projects. To promote the Social Media Research Centre with enhanced SEO (Search Engine Optimization) compliant website. To develop a website that has user friendly graphic user interface for ease of use on the part of the client to search for their relevant information. MOV-Measurable Organizational Value The overall goal of the project that has been undertaken would be creating and developing a functioning website with the help of which the clients can access to the relevant materials for conducting their researches. The elements that would provide value to the client service would be website itself and the value would be measured on the basis of the number visitors and registered members for collecting relevant data and information for their social media research on the website. The cost can also be considered to be cheap in comparison to the estimated benefits. This is because without the help of the website it would not have been possible on the part of the Social media research Centre to drive the traffic of the Master and Doctoral students since it has been observed that there exist a huge demand among these clients for research programs in the social media field. Moreover, with the help of the website the research centre can reach millions of researchers who are interested in the field i.e. it would maximize the exposure of the Social Media Research Centre. Moreover, it would also prove to be beneficial on the part of the researchers to collect relevant data and information at a single point with much ease by simple clicks. In addition to the above aspects, it is expected that the launch of the website would prove to be beneficial for the Social Media Research Centre to increase its revenue by around 10% to 12% each month for the first six months. Thus the launch of the website would make significant impact on the following areas: Strategy This would enhance the strategy of the Social Media Research Centre to target and drive most of the clients to their website. Customer The clients would be benefitted with the fact that they would be collect and retrieve relevant data and information from the website by mere few clicks at a cheaper rate. Financial With the launch of the website the research centre would be able to increase its revenue by around 10% to 12% every month for first 6 months and this would be due to the maximum exposure. Operational The website would enhance the operational efficiency of the research centre since it would be characterized with information about the major research projects that would be updated by the application manager. Moreover, the website would also prove to be beneficial for the research centre to display information, programs, recorded presentations and reports about the events in the area of social media research. This would help in promoting the research centre. Social The website would be designed in a manner that would facilitate the clients with ease of use and quality information. Stakeholders Expectations Project Sponsor On time delivery of the project within the specified budget with desired quality. Project Executive On time delivery of the project within the specified budget with desired quality. Project Manager Successful completion of the project within the specified time and minimum cost. Business Analyst On time completion of the project and clear requirements of the project (Cleland Ireland, 2006). Subject matter expert Effective and enhanced quality platform for working. Technical architect Clear requirements and desired end product that is technically sound and as per the specific requirements. Website designer Effective design of the website that is user friendly and easy to use (Kerzner, 2013). Website developer Effective development of the website that is being designed to meet the specific requirements of the client. Tester Successfully completing all the test cases. Website hosting service provider Seamlessly hosting the service at reasonable prices. Master and Doctoral students Effective platform for the social media research centre. Acceptance Criteria The ease of use of the website and satisfaction on the part of the clients i.e. the master and doctorial students would determine the success of the website. Easy to use for uploading materials would also determine the success. Deliverables for project as a whole Completing the project by the end of 1st November 2017 Achieving the desired quality standards Inclusion of due dates for the deliverables and milestones Creation of project charter 3 days Meeting for the project initiation 1 day Analysis of the requirement gatherings 7 days Creating the requirement specification documents 2 days Creating the technical review document 4 days Creating the work breakdown structure 1 day Creating project schedule 1 day Allocation of the resources 2 days Estimating the project cost 2 days Analysis of stakeholders 2 days Creating the test plan 2 days Creating the risk management plan 2 days Creating the change control plan 2 days Website design 5 days Developing modules 3 days Unite testing 3 days Integration testing 2 days System testing 3 days Usability testing 7 days Website hosting 2 days Making the website live 1 day Assumptions and constraints Lack of resources. Lack of skills on the part of the team members. Assumptions The team members possess the desired competence for their tasks. Stakeholders List Stakeholder No Name and Signature Position Roles and Responsibilities Contact Information 1 Project Sponsor Funding the project 2 Project Executive Controlling and coordinating the activities. 3 Project Manager Responsible for the successful completion of the project (Burke, 2013). 4 Business Analyst Analysis of the specific requirements from the project. 5 Subject matter expert Providing effective and enhanced quality platform for working (Larson Gray, 2011). 6 Technical architect Providing clear requirements and desired end product that is technically sound and as per the specific requirements. 7 Website designer Effectively designing the website that is user friendly and easy to use. 8 Website developer Effectively developing the website that is being designed to meet the specific requirements of the client (Rasche Esser, 2006). 9 Tester Successfully completing all the test cases. 10 Website hosting service provider Seamlessly hosting the service at reasonable prices. 11 Master and Doctoral students Accessing the website to determine its quality. Lessons Learned On the basis of the past experience, it is important to ensure the fact that project deliverables are clear and specific i.e. the requirement of the project is made clear to all the stakeholders. Moreover, in this context it is also important that team members should be selected on the basis of their skills and expertise and prior experience and efforts should be made to achieve a good team culture where team members trust and respect each other. Moreover, the roles and responsibilities of the team members should be clearly defined; project objectives should be clearly defined to prevent confusion and conflicts. Charter Sign Off 2.Communication Plan Plan Purpose The Social Media Research Centre is being to be established that would commence its operations in February 2018 and as a part of the this major project, a project has been undertaken to develop a website for the project that would be completed within 8 months from the date of initiation. The above project plan has been developed for accomplishing the website development plan where the project management team would adopt open communication (Heagney, 2016). Change Management The activities of the project would be broken down into milestones and it reviewed on a continuous basis to analyze the progress and the achievement of the objectives (Highsmith, 2009). In this process, any changes required to be made would be communicated to the top management and discussed with the project team members before implementing the change. Meeting Agenda The project team would meet on a regular basis to discuss the progress, objectives to be achieved, taking decisions collectively and solve issues if any. Stakeholder Information to be shared Frequency of information exchange Location of information exchange Purpose of communication Mechanism for communication Who What When Where Why How Project Sponsor Project progress, changes if required Throughout the project In meetings To keep updated Report and meetings Project Executive Milestone achieved, progress, issues if any, requirement of resources Throughout the project In meetings and through personal communication, emails and face to face conversations To keep updated Through report, meetings and emails. Project Manager Milestone achieved, progress, issues if any, requirement of resources (Kolltveit et al., 2007) Throughout the project In meetings and through personal communication, emails and face to face conversations To keep updated and informed Through report, meetings and emails. Business Analyst Clear requirement from the project and specifications and deliverables. Before the project is initiated In Meetings To keep him informed of the specific requirements o the project. Through report, meetings and emails. Subject matter expert Progress of the project and details of the objectives to be achieved Before the project is initiated In Meetings To keep him informed of the specific requirements o the project. Through report, meetings and emails. Technical architect Technical specifications of the project Before the project is initiated In meetings To keep him informed of the specific requirements o the project. Through report, meetings and emails. Website designer Detailed specifications of the website design Before the project is initiated In meetings To keep him informed of the specific requirements o the project. Through report, meetings and emails. Website developer Detailed information regarding the development required Before the project is initiated In meetings To keep him informed of the specific requirements o the project. Through report, meetings and emails. Tester Desired specifications and end product (Welch Jackson, 2007) After the website has been designed In personal To help him successfully evaluate the end product. Face to face Website hosting service provider Clearly communicating the target markets and featured of the website After the website has been designed In personal and in meetings To help him successfully host the service at reasonable price. Face to face Master and Doctoral students About the launch of the website After the website has been designed Through promotions and advertisements To make them aware of the website service Advertising Rationale Responsibilities of Project Manager The project manager is responsible to work in close conjunction with the project sponsor to clearly define the process of the project and specific project objectives that need to be successfully accomplished. He is also responsible to ensure the fact that the undertaken project has been successfully accomplished with the specified time and budget and the quality standards have been maintained (Pinto, 2007). He is also responsible to ensure the required resources are made readily available and emphasizes upon ensuring high level of trust, cohesion and mutual respect among the team members. Role of Management Management is the art of getting things done by others and so in context to project management, the main objective is directing, managing, coordinating and controlling the team members to successfully achieve the project objectives (Liang et al., 2007). Project Management Skills, methods, technique and tools Skills Communication skills Knowledge and skills Motivation skills Delegation Team building Resource allocating skills Methods, techniques and tools Work Breakdown structure Network diagram Critical method PRINCE2 methodology Areas of Knowledge relevant to project management Integration management Scope management Time management Cost management Quality management Human Resource Management Communications management Risk management Stakeholder management Problems faced by project manager Lack of team cohesion Lack of resources Conflict among team members Lack of clear vision Undefined goals Inadequate skills for project Lack of accountability Ineffective risk management Ambiguous contingency plans Poor communication Lack of stakeholder engagement References Burke, R. (2013). Project management: planning and control techniques.New Jersey, USA. Cleland, D. L., Ireland, L. R. (2006).Project management. McGraw-Hill Professional. Heagney, J. (2016).Fundamentals of project management. AMACOM Div American Mgmt Assn. Highsmith, J. (2009).Agile project management: creating innovative products. Pearson Education. Kerzner, H. (2013).Project management: a systems approach to planning, scheduling, and controlling. John Wiley Sons. Kolltveit, B. J., Karlsen, J. T., Grnhaug, K. (2007). Perspectives on project management.International Journal of Project Management,25(1), 3-9. Larson, E. W., Gray, C. F. (2011). Project management: The managerial process. Liang, H., Saraf, N., Hu, Q., Xue, Y. (2007). Assimilation of enterprise systems: the effect of institutional pressures and the mediating role of top management.MIS quarterly, 59-87. Pinto, J. K. (2007).Project management: achieving competitive advantage. Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA: Pearson/Prentice Hall. Rasche, A., Esser, D. E. (2006). From stakeholder management to stakeholder accountability.Journal of business ethics,65(3), 251-267. Welch, M., Jackson, P. R. (2007). Rethinking internal communication: a stakeholder approach.Corporate Communications: An International Journal,12(2), 177-198.